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PRINT VERSIONStudying & Writing Effectively
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Studying Textbooks
In many of your courses, you are required to read a textbook. Some courses are centered around the textbook, and the lectures play a supportive role. In other courses, the lectures determine the focus of the course, and the textbook plays the supportive role. In both cases, the textbook is an important source of learning, and frequently you are tested on its contents. This page discusses how to:
Read in the same place
If you have a place set aside specifically for reading and studying, you can concentrate more easily when you sit down to work.
Take care of physical comfort
Read at a time of day when you are most alert. Make sure your reading environment is the right temperature. Avoid reading when you are full or hungry.
Minimize distractions
Your study area should be free of external distractions such as people, noise, and sights which interfere with your ability to concentrate. For example, some people work best in silence while others need background music. Pick a place to study that works for you.
Set specific reading goals
Setting specific goals motivates you to use your time efficiently and complete the task. To set specific goals, use the chapter headings as a guide for where to break the chapter into sections. Aim for 8-10 pages per section set aside 45 to 60 minutes per section read one section in a study session.
An example of a specific goal is as follows: read the first section of chapter 2 of Introduction to Financial Accounting, pages 27 to 35 from 10:00 am - 11:00 am Tuesday.
Take regular breaks
Take breaks regularly. If you read when you are tired, you are less likely to understand and retain the information.
Keep a distraction list
You might find your mind wonders when you read. When you notice you are not concentrating, note this on a sheet of paper. You'll find that as you monitor your level of concentration, you will be able to concentrate for longer periods of time and notice more quickly when your concentration begins to waiver.
Prepare for Studying Textbooks
Review the course outline
Spend time at the beginning of the semester to become familiar with the course outline as it gives you a good idea as to what is important and what your learning and your note-taking should focus on. The course outline may contain valuable information:
- the nature of the course objectives
- the main topics that will be covered
- the class schedule to be followed during the semester
- the dates of major assignments and midterms
- the grading plan
- the kinds of exams to expect
Determine the relationship between classes and the textbook
For each course, determine the relationship between classes and the textbook. In some courses, the text is the primary source of information with class time used to clarify and apply new concepts. In other courses, material covered in class is more important than the textbook. Knowing the importance of the text helps you determine how you should approach the text when you read.
Identify the kind of test questions
Early in the semester determine if you need to prepare for multiple choice, short answer or essay type exams, and if you will be examined on your ability to recall information or apply it, analyze or synthesize data, solve problems or evaluate the worth of ideas
In some courses, multiple choice test questions are taken from a test bank, a collection of test questions typically written by the publishers of the textbook. Usually, these test questions are based entirely on the material covered in the text. If you know your test questions come from a test bank, you will want to read and take notes from the text.
Ask your instructor for a sample of questions which might be used on the exam; talk to other students who have taken the course if they have old exams they would share with you; check at the Reserve desk in the library for old exams.
Preview the textbook
Before you begin to read a textbook for the first time, preview it. Briefly look through the book to become familiar with its organization and its component parts. For this purpose, you can glance over the following features of your textbook:
- The introduction/preface and/or forward
This informs you of the author's purpose of the author's biases, how the author's biases, how the author wants you to use the book, and may tell you how the book is organized. - The table of contents
Look over the table of contents to note the topics covered in the text and the order in which the topics will be discussed. - The text chapters
Note special study aides in the chapter. Are there learning objectives at the start of each chapter? Are there headings and subheadings throughout each chapter? Are key words in bold or italicized print? Is there a summary of the chapter's main points? Is there a list of the chapter's key terms? Are there study questions at the end of each chapter? - The glossary
Look at the back of the text and see if there is a complete listing of key terms and definitions. This list will give you an idea of the number of new terms and concepts that will be dealt with in the text and provide a handy reference if you need to look up a term.
Many students believe the myth that "reading once is enough" to establish learning. Unfortunately, reading material once does not ensure learning. For learning and retention to take place, material must be studied, understood, and actively processed. The following section describes several strategies to use while reading.
Survey the chapter
Before you start reading a chapter, survey it to see how the ideas in the chapter are organized. This provides a framework into which you can fit new information. It also gives you a brief introduction to the content of the chapter, allowing you to predict what you will read about. It also encourages you to recall any prior information about the topic, increasing your comprehension and memory. To survey a chapter you could:
- read the introduction and learning objectives
- look over the headings and subheadings
- if there are not headings, read the first sentence of every paragraph
- read the chapter summary and/or the chapter questions
- look over the list of key terms, if available
You could create an outline or mind map of the chapter at this point. To do this, copy down the main headings and sub-headings of the chapter. Mind mapping and outlining is described in more detail later in this handout.
Create questions as you read
Another strategy to create questions before you read. One strategy is to turn learning objectives into questions. Some textbooks have learning objectives at the beginning of the chapter. Your instructors may provide you with learning objectives for each chapter, or the study guide for the text may have learning objectives. You can also turn chapter headings into questions by asking Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?
Reading for answers to questions focuses your attention, provides you with a purpose for reading and encourages you to read actively, to sort and evaluate ideas to determine if they answer the questions.
After you read a section, you can form questions to use for review later. Sometimes you may ask questions to clarify the information or to remind yourself to ask your instructor or your study group about sections you are unsure about.
Read for the main idea
When you read a paragraph, search for the main idea by looking for the topic sentence, which is usually at the beginning of the paragraph. Also, try to identify the pattern of organization of the paragraph. When you know the organizational pattern, you can distinguish main ideas from less important ones and see how ideas are related to each other. Listed below are some examples of common organizational patterns and the key words to look for. The topic sentences in the example paragraphs are underlined.
- Classification
A topic is explained by dividing it into parts, divisions, or categories. Common key words or phrases are as follows: kinds, types, classified as, composed of, divided into, and categories
Example:
There are several types of depression. A major depression differs from other depressions in its severity and duration. Someone with major depression can be depressed months and may have recurring episodes throughout their lives. Another type is bipolar disorder, which has two alternating extremes: mania and depression. Depression can also be categorized in to reactive and endogenous depression.
- Cause and effect
Cause-effect pattern explains why or how something has happened. It describes what caused an event or what happened as a result of a particular event. Common key words or phrases are as follows: causes, creates, stems from, produces, therefore, hence, leads to, thus, for this reason, as a result, effects, explanations for, consequently, because, andbrings about.
Example:
Children's names can have far reaching effects on them, according to researchers. Some researchers have found that there is a tendency for children with popular names to do better in school and be better liked than children with names that are considered undesirable. Also, children's self-images may be influenced by the stereotypes that are associated with their names. Thus, a child named Gertrude may feel ugly and Percy might think he is weak. Also, children with strange names like Rumplestiltskin tend to have behavioral problems.
- Chronological order and process:
Events of procedures are described in the order in which they occur in time or space. Key words or phrases include the following: then, before, after, thereafter, by the time, meanwhile, at that point, first, next, afterward, second, finally, steps, stages, and procedures.
Example:
Here is a way to relax that is easy and can be done in a few minutes. First, lie down with your arms at your sides and your fingers open. When you are comfortable, close your eyes and put distracting thoughts out of your mind. Next, tighten all the muscles of your body at once. Push your toes together, tighten your abdomen, clench your fists, and squeeze your eyes shut. Then, let everything relax and feel the tension flow out of your body. After that, take a deep breath and hold it for twenty seconds; then, let it out slowly and breathe slowly and evenly as though you were sleeping. Finally, think of a pleasant scene and concentrate on it as you feel your whole body relax.
- Comparison and contrast:
A comparison pattern shows how two things or concepts are similar; a contrast pattern describes how two things or concepts are different. Key words or phrases include the following: like, alike, resembles, likewise, similarly, also, same as, in contrast, as opposed to, instead, unlike, different, differs from, just as, but, on the other hand, however, and equally.
Example:
People are different from other chimpanzees but not as different as you might think. It is true that there are significant contrasts in size and proportion and humans are more intelligent. Nevertheless, the similarities are notable. For example, humans and chimpanzees have similar muscles and bones located in the same places and working in nearly the same ways. The internal organs are very much alike, as are their blood and other bodily fluids. Even their genes are strikingly similar.
- Definition
An object or idea is explained by describing the general class or group to which it belongs and how the item differs from others in the same group. Key words and phrases include the following: means, defined as, meaning, is a form of, and definition of.
Example:
A partnership is a form of ownership used primarily in small business firms. Two or more owners comprise a partnership. The partners establish the conditions of the partnership, contribution of each to the business, and division of profits. They also decide on the amount of authority, duties and liabilities each will have.
- Illustration/example:
An idea is explained by providing specific instances or experiences. Key words or phrases include the following: for instance, as an illustration, to illustrate, such as, to be specific, and specifically.
Example:
A boycott is an organized refusal by a group of people to deal with another person or group of people to achieve a specific goal. An illustration is the famous boycott that began in 1955 when Mrs. Rosa Parks of Monteray, Alabama, refused to obey a local ordinance requiring black people to sit at the back of city buses. Mrs. Parks was arrested and that sparked a boycott of the city bus system by blacks. Rather than lose revenue needed to run the bus system, the city repealed the ordinance.
Monitor your comprehension
It is important to monitor your comprehension as you read. After you read a paragraph, take a moment to paraphrase or summarize the information. If you can do this, you have understood the material; if you cannot, read the passage again or read ahead a few paragraphs for clarification. If you still do not understand the paragraph, mark it with a question and return to it later or ask your instructor for clarification.
Record important information
When you record information, you reduce the amount of information you need to know and process the information for recall later on a test. There are several methods for recording.
Underlining or highlighting
Underlining or highlighting is one way to reduce and organize the information you have to learn. Read a paragraph to the end before deciding what to underline. When you underline or highlight, think about your purpose for reading the text and ask "What main points and details do I have to remember?" and "What do I need to mark to help me understand and remember?" Mark words and phrases, not complete sentences. Check that the underlining or highlighting captures what the section is about and makes sense. Underline or highlight the right amount of information.
The following examples show the differences between too much, too little, and sufficient highlighting:
Too much
More recent literature summarizes the theories underlying cooperative learning, Johnson and Johnson (1985) describe how Deutsch conceptualized three types of goal structure: cooperative, competitive and individualistic. With a cooperative goal structure, the individuals work together to attain similar goals and they may not achieve the desired goals without cooperation. With a competitive structure, individuals can only attain goals if others do not. Finally, in an individualistic situation, the attainment of goals by individuals is neither detrimental nor beneficial to others. As Slavin (1990 b) explains, in a cooperative situation, students "encourage one another's learning, reinforce one another's academic efforts and express norms favoring academic achievement" (p. 14).
Too little
More recent literature summarizes the theories underlying cooperative learning. Johnson and Johnson (1985) describe how Deutsch conceptualized three types of goal structure: cooperative, competitive and individualistic. With a cooperative goal structure, the individuals work together to attain similar goals and they may not achieve the desired goals without cooperation. With a competitive structure, individuals can only attain goals if others do not. Finally, in an individualistic situation, the attainment of goals by individuals is neither detrimental nor beneficial to others. As Slavin (1990 b) explains, in a cooperative situation, students "encourage one another's learning, reinforce one another's academic efforts and express norms favoring academic achievement" (p.14).
Sufficient
More recent literature summarizes the theories underlying cooperative learning. Johnson and Johnson (1985) describe how Deutsch conceptualized three types of goal structure: cooperative, competitive and individualistic. With a cooperative goal structure, the individuals work together to attain similar goals and they may not achieve the desired goals without cooperation. With a competitive structure, individuals can only attain goals if others do not. Finally, in an individualistic situation, the attainment of goals by individuals is neither detrimental nor beneficial to others. As Slavin (1990 b) explains, in a cooperative situation, students "encourage one another's learning, reinforce one another's academic efforts and express norms favoring academic achievement" (p. 14).
Underlining is quick and it reduces information, but it may be too automatic and may not involve paraphrasing, an important step in understanding.
Margin notes
Together with underlining, notes in the text's margins can provide a concise review of what is important. Margin notes force you to become more involved with the information and can be used to summarize information, number points, or mark confusing passages. In the last example paragraph, you could record in the margin that there are three types of goal structures and list them as cooperative, competitive and individualistic.
Outlining
Outlining reduces information and shows the relative importance of ideas. It also tests your understanding of the material. When you outline,
- use your own words
- write in phrases not sentences
- use abbreviations and symbols
- number or use bullets for lists
- use indentation
Example:
Deutsch: 3 types of goal structures
- similar goals: need cooperation
- competitive: individual attain goals at other's expense
- Individualistic: nobody loses or benefits
Mapping
Mapping is a visual method of organizing information and involves understanding the material so you can create your individual representation of the material.
Tape record
You can read your summary or paraphrase of a paragraph into a tape recorder. Record a question into the tape recorder, pause for a few seconds while recording, then dictate an answer. Later when you review, test yourself when you play back the tape.
Review after reading
After you have read the chapter and recorded the important points, review the material. Rereading your notes or listening to your tape is not an effective method. If you created questions, see if you can answer them without looking at your notes. If there are some sections that you are not sure of, you go back and reread them. You could recreate mind maps or study charts from memory, or summarize the information again to reinforce your understanding and retention.
If you have any questions, email lsc@mtroyal.ca
Make an appointment by calling 403.440.6452 , coming to the Learning Skills Centre at T123 , or book a telephone appointment by calling 403.440.6452.
Calgary, Alberta, Canada T3E 6K6
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